ECO Center Garden: N-K-P and pH Soil Maps

NT Glass

B.A., Eckerd College, St. Petersburg, FL, 2013


Abstract. The Rome ECO Center's garden furthers the center's environmental education initiative through the exhibition on native plant species. Knowledge of the soil nutrient composition of the garden will enhance future planting endeavors. The garden was divided into 70 plots based on a 10X10 foot grid, and each plot was tested for soil nutrients and pH level using a LaMotte Complete Soil Testing Kit. Test results found that the garden is low in Nitrogen but contains medium amounts of potassium and phosphorus. The average soil pH level is 6.85. Phosphorus is low at the garden's base but increases as one moves upwards away from the Center. High nitrogen content is rare and exists only in a few isolated pockets. High levels of nutrient content exist along the borders of the garden. For future gardening efforts I suggest the application of an N-fertilizer. It should also be noted that the cultivation of plants along the garden's borders is likely to be successful based on soil nutrient content in these areas.

1               Introduction

The ECO Center garden focuses on growth and exhibition of native plants for environmental education purposes. The garden includes various themes such as "Meadow" and "Rain Forest" sections and a shade garden. As of yet, no soil map exists of the ECO Garden.

The success of plant growth depends upon several factors. Of these factors a balanced soil pH level and ample soil content of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are vital. Nitrogen is involved in almost all biochemical processes within plants. It is a component of chlorophyll and facilitates the formation of amino and nucleic acids and enzymes. Nitrogen also stimulates the plant to absorb and utilize other nutrients such as phosphorus and potassium. Phosphorus encourages root development and speeds the maturing process. It also increases the total biomass of the plant by stimulating rapid cell development, and thus also serves to increase the plant's resistance to disease. Finally, potassium contributes to the activation of various enzymes, the production of amino acids, the prevention of wilting, and plant resistance to disease. Soil pH has been included in this study as it is an excellent indicator of soil production potential. A soil map of pH levels and N-K-P content is thus beneficial to future gardening efforts and therefore to the environmental education initiative of Rome ECO Center.

In this study I have divided the ECO Garden into 70 plots based on a 10X10 foot grid (Figure 1). Note that due to the triangular shape of the garden not all sections are equal in length of width. Each plot was tested for soil pH, nitrogen content, phosphorus content, and potassium content. The results have been used to create a soil nutrient and pH map (Figure 6).

2               Methods

I divided the ECO Garden into 70 plots based on a 10X10 foot grid overlaid across the garden's area
using measuring tape and flags. Measurements began in the west corner of the garden and moved in an eastward direction. The resulting map includes 13 columns at its widest and 8 rows at its longest. The columns are labeled alphabetically from right to left (column A to column M). The rows are labeled from bottom to top, beginning with row S (S represents "Shade Garden": the section of the garden directly adjacent to the ECO Center's main entrance) and continue upward to row 7. I obtained a soil sample from the center of each plot at a depth of 3 inches. Each soil sample was dried overnight on printing paper, removed of foreign objects, filtered, and tested for pH level and N-K-P content using a LaMotte Complete Soil Testing Kit.

3              Results

The following are the results of the soil testing, beginning at plot A1 (far west corner) and continuing right-to-left to plot I7 (far east corner).

Please note: plot C2 is encompassed by concrete.

A1: pH 7, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen low, Potassium medium high
B1: pH 7.5, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen trace, Potassium high
C1: pH 8, Phosphorus trace, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium
D1: pH 7.75, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium low
E1: pH 7.75, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium high
F1: pH 7, Phosphorus trace, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium
G1: pH 7.7.5, Phosphorus trace, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium
H1: pH 7, Phosphorus trace, Nitrogen trace, Potassium low
I1: pH 6, Phosphorus trace, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium low
I-S: pH 5.5, Phosphorus trace, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium low
J1: pH 6.5, Phosphorus trace, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium low
J-S: pH 6, Phosphorus medium, Nitrogen low, Potassium medium
K1: pH 6.5, Phosphorus trace, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium high
K-S: pH 7, Phosphorus medium, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium low
L1: pH 6.75, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium high
L-S: pH 7, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen trace, Potassium Medium high
M1: pH 7, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen medium, Potassium low
M-S: pH 7, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen high, Potassium medium
A2: pH 6.5, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen high, Potassium medium
B2: pH 7, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium high
D2: pH 7, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium high
E2: pH 7, Phosphorus medium, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium high
F2: pH 7, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium
G2: pH 6.5, Phosphorus medium, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium
H2: pH 7, Phosphorus trace, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium
I2: pH 7, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium
J2: pH 7, Phosphorus trace, Nitrogen trace, Potassium low
K2: pH 7, Phosphorus trace, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium high
L2: pH 6.75, Phosphorus high, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium high
M2: pH 6.5, Phosphorus medium, Nitrogen low, Potassium low
B3: pH 7, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen medium, Potassium high
C3: pH 7, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen low, Potassium high
D3: pH 7.5, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen trace, Potassium high
E3: pH 7.25, Phosphorus medium, Nitrogen low, Potassium medium high
F3: pH 7.25, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen low, Potassium medium
G3: pH 7, Phosphorus medium, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium
H3: pH 7, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen trace, Potassium high
I3: pH 7.5, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen low, Potassium low
J3: pH 7, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium low
K3: pH 7.5, Phosphorus trace, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium high
L3: pH 7, Phosphorus medium, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium high
C4: pH 6, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen medium, Potassium medium high
D4: pH 7.5, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen trace, Potassium high
E4: pH 7, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium
F4: pH 6.5, Phosphorus medium, Nitrogen low, Potassium medium low
G4: oH 7, Phosphorus medium, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium
H4: pH 7, Phosphorus medium, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium high
I4: pH 6.5, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium low
J4: pH 7.75, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium low
K4: pH 7, Phosphorus trace, Nitrogen low, Potassium medium low
D5: pH 6, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium high
E5: pH 6, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium
F5: pH 6.5, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium low
G5: pH 6.5, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen trace, Potassium high
H5: pH 7, Phosphorus medium, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium
I5: pH 6.5, Phosphorus medium, Nitrogen low, Potassium low
J5: pH 7, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium low
K5: pH 7, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen medium, Potassium low
D6: pH 7, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen low, Potassium medium high
E6: pH 6.75, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium low
F6: pH 7, Phosphorus trace, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium
G6: pH 6.5, Phosphorus trace, Nitrogen low, Potassium high
H6: pH 7.5, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen medium, Potassium high
I6: pH 7.5, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen high, Potassium medium low
J6: pH 8, Phosphorus trace, Nitrogen medium, Potassium medium low
E7: pH 7, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen low, Potassium medium
F7: pH 6.5, Phosphorus trace, Nitrogen trace, Potassium low
G7: pH 7.5, Phosphorus trace, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium high
H7: pH 7.5, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen trace, Potassium medium high
I7: pH 7, Phosphorus low, Nitrogen low, Potassium medium low

The average pH level for the ECO Garden is 6.85. The average soil phosphorus content is medium low (50 lbs/acre), although more than half of the plots contain a low level of phosphorus. The average soil nitrogen content is low (15 lbs/acre). The average soil potassium content is medium (160 lbs/acre).

4           Discussion

Overall, the ECO Garden is low on nitrogen. Phosphorus and potassium content is medium. Row 1 has the least amount of phosphorus and contains only trace amounts of nitrogen. Phosphorus content is more prevalent in the center of the garden. Interestingly, plots that border the garden hold pockets of high nutrient content, possibly due to a lack of plant absorption. Pockets of high nitrogen content exist in plots M1, K5, J6, H6, I6, C4, B3, and A2. Phosphorus and nitrogen content are low in plots containing the dry creek bed, although potassium content appears unaffected. This may be explained by potassium's high natural occurrence rate in soils, which also explains the garden's high potassium content overall.

The rich presence of nutrients along the border of the garden presents an opportunity for the cultivation of border-plants in these areas. Such plants are likely to grow well and thrive in these plots provided adequate space is secured for ample root growth. The low presence of nitrogen throughout the garden may be remedied by adding appropriate amounts of nitrogen-rich fertilizer to the entire garden, although side effects may include increased weed growth.

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Ben and Jason of the Rome ECO Center for encouraging this study and for providing the flags used to outline garden plots.

Figures

Figure 1: Grid outline of ECO Garden

Figure 2: pH content of ECO Garden

Figure 3: Phosphorus content of ECO Garden

Figure 4: Nitrogen content of ECO Garden

Figure 5: Potassium content of ECO Garden

Figure 6: N-K-P map of ECO Garden

Impacts of cigarette litter on terrestrial ecosystems in urban open spaces in Taiwan

Impacts of cigarette litter on terrestrial ecosystems in urban open spaces in Taiwan

N.T. Glass

B.A., Eckerd College, St. Petersburg, Fl, 2013

Abstract. Cigarette-related litter is widely recognized as a negative influence on the environment, however specific impacts of cigarette butts on ecological processes are largely unknown. Cigarettes contain many harmful chemicals which could potentially be leached into ecosystems where littering occurs. Effects of this process are amplified in urban open spaces where litter abundance is high and ecosystems are heavily impacted by surrounding urban areas. I examine cigarette-derived litter impacts on terrestrial systems at a restored wetland ecosystem in New Taipei City, Taiwan, by inserting smoked cigarette butts into treatment plots and observing changes in plant growth, soil composition, and community interactions. In addition, the effects of cigarette-derived litter on seed germination and plant physiological processes were observed through the transplanting of four plant species into soil continuously treated with cigarette butts and through the planting of two species in three treatment pots containing three to twenty-seven cigarette butts. The results found a positive correlation between cigarette butt abundance and increased soil pH and indicate cigarette-derived litter as a negative factor in seed germination and seedling growth. Seedlings in both field and offsite experiments exhibited reduced growth when soil was treated with seven cigarettes or above. However, mature species in transplanted and field observations appear unaffected by cigarette butts and no impact on biotic community interactions was found. This study represents the first document to investigate the hazards of cigarette-derived litter to terrestrial plants and will assist in assessing potential ecological risks of cigarette butts to the terrestrial environment.

1            Introduction

Cigarette butts can have important impacts on urban open spaces as they are the most common form of litter worldwide with an estimated 4.5 trillion discarded annually (Slaughter et al., 2011; Giuliano et al., 2015). Cigarettes contain over 4000 chemicals, including approximately 50 carcinogens, (Slaughter et al., 2011; U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, 2004) that may enter ecosystems through the process of leaching (Micevska et al., 2006; Moerman and Potts 2011; Slaughter et al., 2011). Despite the abundance of cigarette-related litter in urban areas, the capacity of cigarette butts to affect the ecological processes of urban open spaces and the wildlife within them is not yet fully understood.

Cigarette butts typically impact ecosystems through the process of leaching chemicals (Moerman and Potts 2011; Slaughter et al., 2011), although other impacts such as wildlife ingestion and wildfires may also occur. While the effects of a major fire can be systematically studied, wildlife ingestion of litter poses a challenge to ecologists as most evidence on this front is anecdotal by nature (Novotny et al., 2011; Stanley et al., 1988). Wildlife in urban areas often forage through litter and eat indiscriminately, which may result in potential exposure to chemicals in addition to choking hazards  (Ocean Conservancy 2008; Novotny et al., 2011), however little evidence of any wildlife mortality due solely to cigarette butt consumption currently exists (Novotny et al., 2011). As leachants, cigarettes have been shown to act as a continuous point source in water for contamination of multiple chemicals including nicotine, ethylphenol, pesticides, and heavy metals (Micevska et al., 2006; Moerman and Potts 2011; Slaughter et al., 2011), and to cause mortality in both saltwater and freshwater fish (Slaughter et al., 2011). Research on which leached chemicals pose the greatest threat to animals is slightly inconsistent as studies suggest that either nicotine, ethylphenol, or pesticides are the most immediately toxic of cigarette-derived chemicals to marine organisms (Micevska et al., 2006; Slaughter et al., 2011). The risk of cigarette-derived litter to significantly impact actual marine wildlife populations also remains unclear (Slaughter et al., 2011), and even less information currently exists on potential impacts of cigarette-derived leachants on terrestrial plant and wildlife populations.

While the majority of discarded cigarette butts in cities ultimately travel into urban waterways, those that remain in the ground lose an average of only 30-35% of their mass within two years (Giuliano et al., 2015), allowing ample time for moisture in the soil to initiate and continue a leaching process. Long-term ecological impacts of this process are difficult to partition due to the diversity and sheer number of chemicals present in manufactured cigarettes. For example cigarettes contain the heavy metals Pb, Zn, Ni, Cu, Cd, Mn, Cr, Fe, and As which have shown to accumulate within plants and cause toxicity to grazers while simultaneously decreasing plant growth and overall health (Rana and Masood 2002; Kebir and Bouhadjera 2011; Singh and Agrawal 2007). However, this potential impact is convoluted with the effects of other chemicals such as nicotine, which has been used traditionally as an organic pesticide (Pottorff 2010) and has been shown to increase seed germination rate and efficiency in certain plants (Rizvi and Rizvi 1987). It should also be noted that most heavy metal studies have focused on sites influenced by industrial waste (Kebir and Bouhadjera 2011; Singh and Agrawal 2007) in which the accumulation of heavy metals occurs relatively rapidly, and studies involving nicotine typically involve direct application of the pesticide to plant subjects or areas. By contrast cigarette litter delivers small quantities of these chemicals into the environment at multiple point sources, thus the quantity of cigarette-derived leachants required to significantly affect ecosystems requires further study before accurate predictions can be made.

Taiwan represents an ideal setting for study of cigarette-derived leachant effects due to the immense amount of cigarette butt litter generated in its principal city of New Taipei. Approximately 20.6% of residents of New Taipei City smoke habitually (Health Promotion Administration, Ministry of Health and Welfare 2014). The availability of ash trays in New Taipei is restricted as public trash cans are discouraged by the city government in order to minimize illegal dumping of trash (BBC News 2011), and thus smokers tend to rely on daily street sweeping to minimize the impact of their litter. However, much of the smaller pieces of litter (i.e. cigarette butts) are swept down the storm drains of the city within minutes of being discarded either by water runoff, wind, or human activity (many smokers aim for drains when discarding their butts). The storm drains direct water runoff into the rivers surrounding the city and thus facilitate a steady flow of litter from the city centers into the urban open spaces surrounding the river basin.

In this study I observe the responses of plant communities and wildlife in replicate plots to varying treatments of cigarette-derived litter to the soil in  Jiangzicuijinguan Riverside Park, an urban open space in New Taipei City, Taiwan. I also investigate the response of the plant species Allium schoenoprasum, Tagetes patula, Viola tricolor, Rosmarinus officinalis, Salvia coccinae, and Sedum reflexum to cigarette-derived leachants in controlled growing environments. Particular emphasis has been placed on the effects of chemical uptake in plants grown in affected soils and affected soil nutrient composition, although the effects of litter upon soil microorganism communities may also provide valuable insights into the possible extent of litter impact on below-ground activities of affected areas. My results provide an essential foundation for further research into appropriate management strategies for urban open spaces heavily impacted by cigarette-derived litter.

2            Methods

2.1   Site Description

The study was conducted in a -3 ha restored wetland recreational area located in New Taipei City, Taiwan on the grounds of Jiangzicuijinguan Riverside Park (25°2'21"N, 121°28'54"E). The site is managed by the New Taipei City municipal government. The area is dominated by reeds (Phragmites karka). Other species include Japanese Hop (Humulus japonicus), Twoflower wedelia (Melanthera biflora), Indian camphorweed (Pluchea indica), and Formosan Alder (Alnus formosana). Mean annual temperature is 70.8 degrees F, and mean annual precipitation is 82 inches. Common wildlife in the area includes the Common Sandpiper, the Common Kingfisher, the Little Egret, the Night Heron, the Fiddler Crab, the Taiwan Helice (Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2015) and the common rat (Rattus norvegicus). Stray dogs are also common throughout the area. Insects found on site include a limited abundance of butterflies, moths, crickets, and spiders.

2.2   Field Treatment and Control Plots

This study utilized 3 control plots and 3 treatment plots located within Jiangzicuijinguan Riverside Park. Each plot measured 3X3 ft and consisted of the same plant species of approximately equal abundance, and was located equal distances from both the riverbank and pedestrian walkway. Growing conditions were also similar for each plot. Control plots were located adjacent to treatment plots. Each treatment plot contained smoked cigarette butts buried 3 inches within the soil in locations of a corresponding distance from other butts. Treatment plot #1 contained 3 smoked cigarette butts (each distanced a foot away from the others), treatment plot #2 contained 5 smoked cigarette butts (each distanced 6 inches away from the others), and treatment plot #3 contained 10 cigarette butts (each distanced 2 inches away from the others). Each plot was visually evaluated weekly for the duration of the study for measured growth and overall health of plants. Attention was also given to any signs of disturbance of plots by local wildlife, as well as activity of soil communities. Growth measurements were taken in inches and plant health and organism activity observations were recorded on a numeric scale with 0 representing 100% wilt or no insect/wildlife activity and 10 representing 0% wilt or high insect/wildlife activity. After 70 days several plants were harvested from each plot and analyzed for nutrient content and signs of leachant contamination. Soil samples were collected from each plot and analyzed as well.

2.3   Offsite Treatment and Control Plots

In addition to the field experiment this study utilized potted plants to provide further insight into potential effects of cigarette litter on plant physiological processes. Plants involved in this facet of the study were Chive (Allium schoenoprasum) and Mexican Marigold (Tagetes patula). Seeds were acquired for both species and planted within fertile soil in a 1o-inch diameter ceramic pot and given optimal exposure to sunlight and water to simulate ideal growing conditions. The soil used for this experiment tested as containing a medium-high amount of Phosphorus, a medium-high amount of Potassium, and a low amount of Nitrogen. Each plant species was grown in four pots: one control and 3 treatments. Each treatment contained cigarette butts buried at various depths within the soil. The first treatment pot (hereafter TP1) included 3 smoked cigarette butts, the second treatment pot (hereafter TP2) contained 9 butts, and the third treatment pot (hereafter TP3) contained 27 butts.

 A second facet of the study involved Pansy (Viola tricolor), Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), Sage Salvia (Salvia coccinae), and Blue Stonecrop (Sedum reflexum). Two adult plants of each species were transplanted into ceramic pots and given optimal exposure to sunlight and water (Figure 2.3.1). The soil used for this experiment tested as containing a medium amount of Phosphorus, a medium-high amount of Potassium, and a medium amount of Nitrogen. One pot served as a control and the other received 3 cigarette butts initially with another 3 added every 15 days for the duration of the study. All control and treatment pots were visually evaluated periodically for growth and overall health of plants. At the completion of the experiment plant and soil samples were collected and analyzed for signs of leachant contamination and nutrition composition.

In addition a pot containing 320 ounces of the test soil was used as an cigarette butt deposit. The soil used for this experiment tested as containing a medium-high amount of Phosphorus, a medium-high amount of Potassium, and a low amount of Nitrogen. At the completion of the study 279 cigarette butts were present in the pot, and a soil sample was taken and tested for pH and N-K-P content.

3            Results

3.1   Field Treatment Observations
Results found no discernible correlation between mature plant growth/health and abundance of cigarette butts in treatment plots #1 or #2 (Figure 3.1.1). Plant health in seedlings was slightly lower in treatment #3 than control #3. Below-ground and above-ground insect activity appeared unaffected by cigarette-litter. Wildlife sightings within the plots were limited, with 4 instances of foraging impacts occurring indiscriminately between plots.

3.2   Field Treatment Test Results
Results indicated soil and plant content of Phosphorus, Nitrogen, and Potassium had no relationship with abundance of cigarette-litter (Figure 3.2.1, Figure 3.2.2). As expected, nutrient content was overall higher in plant matter than in corresponding soil. Soil pH tested higher in treatment plots than in control plots, with treatment #3 peaking at a pH level of 8. However, plant pH levels appeared unaffected.

3.3   Offsite Treatment Observations
Tagetes patula failed to germinate in the treatment or control pots. Allium schoenoprasum control, TP1, and TP2 sprouted within 10 days. TP3 failed to germinate. TP2 and TP3 exhibited stressful growing conditions, with TP2 sprouting but failing to grow any leaflets (Figure 3.3.1). TP1 exhibited slightly more growth and overall health than the control (Figure 3.3.2). The control's maximum length was 1.75 inches and maximum width was 0.75 inches. TP1's maximum length was 2.5 inches and maximum width was 1.25 inches. Control and TP1 began wilting 54 days after planting due to cold weather effects.

Rosmarinus officinalis wilted in both control and treatment pots within 10 days of transplanting. The remaining plants exhibited slight growth throughout the study with no significant change caused by the addition of cigarette butts to treatment pots (Figure 3.3.3). Viola tricolor treatment and control both exhibited poor health until they were eaten by wildlife 46 days after transplant. Salvia coccinae treatment was also eaten at this time. No discernible relationship exists between cigarette litter and insect activity within pots and on plants. Both Salvia coccinae plants successfully attracted pollinators. Sedum reflexum treatment exhibited slightly more growth than the control, while Salvia coccinae control exhibited more growth than the treatment (Figure 3.3.4).

3.4 Offsite Treatment Test Results
Results indicate cigarette-litter abundance exhibited a positive relationship with increased soil pH (Figure 3.4.1). The Ash Pot sample tested the highest pH level at 8.0. Phosphorus, Nitrogen, and Potassium content appeared unaffected by cigarette-litter in both soils and plants (Figure 3.4.2). As expected, nutrient content is higher in the plants than in the soil due to nutrient uptake. 

4            Discussion

The lack of a discernible relationship between cigarette butt abundance and growth of mature plants within the transplanted pots and field plots suggests that the presence of cigarette-derived litter results in no short-term negative effects on established plant species (short-term referring to 3 months). The low-to-moderate presence of N-K-P in soils and the moderate-to-high presence of N-K-P in plant tissue shows that cigarette-derived litter does not inhibit nutrient absorption in mature plants. The increased pH level of treated soils is positively correlated with increased cigarette butt abundance and was present in both field and off-site treatments, suggesting cigarette-derived litter does impact soil chemistry without affecting nutrient availability. Furthermore, tissue from mature plants did not exhibit increased pH levels in treatment plots despite increased pH levels of affected soil. The results thus suggest that while cigarette-derived litter does impact soil chemistry, the effects do not negatively impact mature plants due to adequate defense mechanisms and plant stability.

While no discernible relationship between cigarette butt abundance and the growth of mature plants was found, offsite Allium schoenoprasum test results indicate a parabolic correlation between cigarette butt abundance and seed growth (Figure 4.1). In the germination stage, plants are driven to growth by soil factors such as temperature, moisture, light, and the presence of essential minerals. The failed germination of TP3, when contrasted to the successful germination of TP2, TP1, and the control, indicates a large presence of cigarette butts may impact these factors significantly enough to deter seed germination. The successful germination of TP2 further suggests the presence of cigarette-derived litter must be exceedingly high to impact seed germination (over 1.0 butts per square inch). Additional evidence of a parabolic correlation between cigarette butt abundance and seed growth is indicated by the halted growth of TP2. After successful germination, seedlings rely on the presence of nutrients for vegetative growth. The results of TP2 suggest cigarette-derived litter impacts on soil chemistry are significant enough to affect seedling absorption processes that are vital for continued growth. Soil tests show that nutrient availability was unaffected by cigarette butt presence, thus indicating the physiological processes of TP2 were negatively affected by the presence of cigarette-derived litter. Interestingly, the measurements of TP1 growth when compared to the control's growth indicate a small abundance of cigarette butts may positively impact seed growth. This result supports prior studies suggesting nicotine increases seed germination efficiency (Rizvi and Rizvi 1987), and thus the slight presence of cigarette butts (0.3 butts per square inch) should be considered as a possible driving factor for increased seedling growth. The equal presence of insect activity within all control and treatment pots discredits the potential of cigarette butts as a functioning pesticide, thereby eliminating the possibility that cigarette-derived litter is beneficial to seedlings as an insect-deterrent. The increased growth of TP1, if related to cigarette butt abundance, is thus due to slight alterations in the soil chemical composition. The results of the Allium schoenoprasum pots thus support the hypothesis that cigarette-derived leachants have a parabolic relationship with seed germination efficiency and seedling growth (with the vertex of the parabola being between 0.3 butts per square inch and 1.0 butts per square inch). 

The field treatment observations and test results parallel the findings of the offsite observation and test results. Specifically, no significant relationship between cigarette butt abundance and below-ground and above-ground activity exists, and soil nutrient content and nutrient absorption processes in mature plants are unaffected by cigarette-derived litter. The positive relationship exhibited between cigarette butt abundance and increased soil pH levels indicates cigarette-derived litter significantly affects soil chemistry, however the potential of these effects to impact mature plants is negligible. Plants in the germination and seedling stages are at the most risk of being negatively impacted by cigarette-derived litter, although a slight presence of cigarette butts may increase seed germination efficiency and seedling growth.

5           Conclusions

This study highlights the potential of cigarette-derived litter to negatively impact plant growth in affected soils. My results indicate the presence of cigarette butts affect soil chemistry to a degree that presents significant challenges only to plants in the germination and initial vegetative growth stages. This theory is supported by the decreased health and growth exhibited by new growth in field treatment #3, the results of the offsite Allium schoenoprasum study, and the positive relationship between cigarette butt abundance and increased soil pH indicated by soil test results. Specific chemical impacts of cigarette leachants on soil chemistry remains unclear, however some evidence exists to indicate cigarette-derived litter may affect seedling physiological process such as nutrient absorption. Negative impacts on seed germination rate and seedling growth could have consequences for successional dynamics in heavily affected areas. Further study is recommended to assay the potential of cigarette-derived litter to impact seed germination and seedling growth across a range of species common in urban open areas.

Acknowledgements

This study would not be possible without the New Taipei City government and their generous permission to allow the use of Jiangzicuijinguan Riverside Park as a setting for my research.

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U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2004. The Health Consequences of Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General. US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health: Atlanta, GA.

Figures

Figure 2.3.1: Table of recorded weather observations for 10/10/16 to 12/5/16.

Date	Temp Min (F)	Temp Max (F)	Notes
10/10	45	80	clear
10/11	44	77	clear
10/13	75	86	clear
10/17	55	86	rain
10/18	55	88	cloudy
10/20	61	91	clear
10/21	51	72	partly cloudy
10/22	42	69	partly cloudy
10/23	36	68	clear
10/24	41	84	clear
10/25	43	80	clear
10/26	44	79	partly cloudy
10/27	57	82	cloudy
10/31	50	88	clear
11/1	51	86	partly cloudy
11/2	56	78	cloudy
11/4	54	78	cloudy
11/5	42	74	clear
11/6	39	74	partly cloudy
11/7	38	74	clear
11/11	29	70	partly cloudy
11/14	32	64	clear
11/15	32	70	partly cloudy
11/16	35	75	clear
11/18	37	79	clear
11/21	25	58	clear
11/22	26	60	clear
11/28	45	69	cloudy
11/29	54	75	partly cloudy
11/30	49	72	rain
12/5	45	54	clear

Figure 3.1.1: Chart of averages of plant health, plant growth, above-ground activity, below-ground activity, and wildlife activity in field plots on a scale of 0 (poor health/no activity) to 10 (robust health/high activity).

Figure 3.2.1: Table of values for soil and plant pH and N-K-P content for field plots on a scale of 0 (0 pH or trace nutrient content) to 10 (10 pH or very high nutrient content).

	Control 1	Treatment 1	Control 2	Treatment 2	Control 3	Treatment 3
Soil pH	6.75	7	6	7	6.5	8
Plant pH	6	6	6	6	6	6.5
Soil Phosphorus	1.4	1.4	2.8	2.8	0	0
Plant Phosphorus	8.4	8.4	7	7	8.4	8.4
Soil Nitrogen	1.4	1.4	2.8	2.8	1.4	1.4
Plant Nitrogen	7	7	7	7	8.4	8.4
Soil Potassium	8.4	8.4	9	9	8.4	8.4
Plant Potassium	8.4	8.4	8.4	8.4	7	7

Figure 3.2.2: Chart of averages of control and treatment field plots for soil and plant pH and N-K-P content on a scale of 0 (0 pH or trace nutrient content) to 10 (10 pH or very high nutrient content).

Figure 3.3.1: Length and width growth measurements in inches for Allium schoenoprasum TP1 (C1), TP2 (C2), and TP3 (C3) beginning on 10/10/16 and ending on 12/5/16.

Figure 3.3.2: Averages of growth for Allium schoenoprasum TP1 (C1) and TP2 (C2) beginning on 10/10/16 and ending on 12/5/16.

Figure 3.3.3: Table of values for length and width measurements in inches for Sedum reflexum control (B1), Sedum reflexum treatment (B2), Salvia coccinae control (S1), Salvia coccinae treatment (S2), Viola tricolor control (P1), and Viola tricolor treatment (P2) beginning on 10/10/16 and ending on 12/5/16.

B1 Length	B1 Width	B2 Length	B2 Width	S1 Length	S1 Width	S2 Length	S2 Width	P1 Length	P1 Width	P2 Length	P2 Width
3.5	6.75	3.5	7.25	5	10.5	6	6	5.5	4.5	4.5	4.5
3.5	6.75	3.5	7.25	5	10.5	6	6	5.5	4.5	4.5	4.5
4	6.5	3.5	7.5	5.5	9	5.25	6	5	4	7	9
4	6.5	3.5	7.5	5.5	9	5.25	6	5	4	7	9
4	6.5	3.5	7.5	5.5	9	5.25	6	5	4	7	9
3	5.5	3	7	6.75	8	5	6.5	5.75	5.5	5	3
3	5.5	3	7	6.75	8	5	6.5	5.75	5.5	5	3
3	5.5	3	7	6.75	8	5	6.5	5.75	5.5	5	3
3	5.5	3	7	6.75	8	5	6.5	5.75	5.5	5	3
3.5	5.75	3.5	7.25	8	9	7.5	6.5	5.5	5.75	4.5	4.5
3.5	5.75	3.5	7.25	8	9	7.5	6.5	5.5	5.75	4.5	4.5
3.5	5.75	3.5	7.25	8	9	7.5	6.5	5.5	5.75	4.5	4.5
3.5	5.75	3.5	7.25	8	9	7.5	6.5	5.5	5.75	4.5	4.5
5	6	4	7.5	9.5	10	10	8.5	4.5	3	4.5	4
5	6	4	7.5	9.5	10	10	8.5	4.5	3	4.5	4
5	6	4	7.5	9.5	10	10	8.5	4.5	3	4.5	4
5	6	4	7.5	9.5	10	10	8.5	4.5	3	4.5	4
5	6	4	7.5	9.5	10	10	8.5	4.5	3	4.5	4
5	6	4	7.5	9.5	10	10	8.5	4.5	3	4.5	4
4.5	7	4	8	10.5	9.5	9	10	4.5	4.75	4	3.5
4.5	7	4	8	10.5	9.5	9	10	0	0	4	3.5
4	8	3.5	8.5	11	10	4	6	0	0	1.5	1.75
4	8	3.5	8.5	11	10	4	6	0	0	0	0
4	8	3.5	8.5	11	10	4	6	0	0	0	0
4	8	3.5	8.5	11	10	4	6	0	0	0	0
4	8	3.5	8.5	11	10	4	6	0	0	0	0
4.25	8.5	4	8	12	11	4	6	0	0	0	0
4	8.5	4.5	9	11.5	10	3.5	5.5	0	0	0	0
4	8.5	4.5	9	11.5	10	3.5	5.5	0	0	0	0
4	8.5	4.5	9	11.5	10	3.5	5.5	0	0	0	0
4	8	4.5	9	11.5	9.25	4.5	6	0	0	0	0

Figure 3.3.4: Chart of average growth measurements in inches for Sedum reflexum control (B1), Sedum reflexum treatment (B2), Salvia coccinae control (S1), Salvia coccinae treatment (S2), Viola tricolor control (P1), and Viola tricolor treatment (P2) beginning on 10/10/16 and ending on 12/5/16.

Figure 3.4.1: Chart of soil and plant pH levels for Viola tricolor control (Pansy 1), Viola tricolor treatment (Pansy 2), Salvia coccinae control (Salvia 1), Salvia coccinae treatment (Salvia 2), Sedum reflexum control (Spruce 1), Sedum reflexum treatment (Spruce 2), Rosmarinus officinalis control (Rose 1), Rosmarinus officinalis treatment (Rose 2), Allium schoenoprasum control (Chive 1) Allium schoenoprasum TP1 (Chive 2), TP2 (Chive 3), and TP3 (Chive 4), and the Ash Pot (Ash tray).

Figure 3.4.2: Table of values for N-K-P content of Viola tricolor control (Pansy 1), Viola tricolor treatment (Pansy 2), Salvia coccinae control (Salvia 1), Salvia coccinae treatment (Salvia 2), Sedum reflexum control (Spruce 1), Sedum reflexum treatment (Spruce 2), Rosmarinus officinalis control (Rose 1), Rosmarinus officinalis treatment (Rose 2), Allium schoenoprasum control (Chive 1) Allium schoenoprasum TP1 (Chive 2), TP2 (Chive 3), and TP3 (Chive 4), and the Ash Pot (Ash tray), with 0 representing trace amount, 1.4 representing trace-low amount, 2.8 representing low amount, 4.2 representing medium-low amount, 5.6 representing medium amount, 7 representing medium high amount, 8.4 representing high amount, and 9.8 representing very high amount.

Plant	Soil Phosphorus	Plant Phosphours	Soil Nitrogen	Plant Nitrogen	Soil Potassium	Plant Potassium
Pansy 1	0		1.4		7
Pansy 2	1.4		1.4		4.2
Salvia 1	1.4	8.4	0	0	2.8	9.8
Salvia 2	1.4	8.4	4.2	8.4	1.4	9.8
Spruce 1	1.4	8.4	1.4	2.8	7	8.4
Spruce 2	1.4	8.4	2.8	2.8	7	9.8
Rose 1	1.4	8.4	2.8	8.4	8.4	7
Rose 2	2.8	8.4	4.2	8.4	7	7
Chive 1	2.8		0		9.8
Chive 2	1.4		0		9.8
Chive 3	4.2		0		9.8
Chive 4	5.6		0		9.8
Ash tray	8.4		0		7
Control	7		0		7

Figure 4.1: Chart of average growth in inches of Allium schoenoprasum control and treatments over time.